Fig. 1

Historical photo documentation of large gap regeneration and heterogeneous canopy structure in red pine-dominated ecosystems (colloquially referred to as Norway pine). The photos, taken in 1939, are from what is now the Chippewa National Forest, MN, USA. Top: The caption for this photo reads nature’s own group selection: red pine reproduction often became established in great abundance following a seed year, but because of the density of the overstory such reproduction was generally shaded out within a few years except in openings caused by tree mortality. Bottom: Large old pines and red pine cohort regeneration, Pike Bay, MN, USA