Fig. 3

The time series of annual carbon (C) storage (solid lines) and C storage capacity (the contour lines) (a), and the traceable components: b–h for net primary productivity (NPP), C residence time, gross primary productivity (GPP), C use efficiency (CUE), environmental scalars, temperature, and precipitation simulated by seven CMIP6 models, respectively. i The baseline C residence time for each model. The shades in (a) represent the annual variation in C storage potential for models (positive above the solid lines, and negative below the solid lines)