Table 1 Field and laboratory-based analyses of physico-chemical parameters of water and soil of the studied wetlands
Evaluation indicator | Instrument/method used | References |
|---|---|---|
Fecal coliform (mpn 100 mL−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Zhang et al. (2019) |
Phosphate (PO43-) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Buwono et al. (2021) |
Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Henderson et al. (2021) |
Nitrate (NO3-) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Buwono et al. (2021) |
Arsenic (As) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Rakib et al. (2021) |
Fluoride (F-) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Rakib et al. (2021) |
Depth of water (m) | Staff gauge | |
Turbidity (m) | Sechi disk | |
Surface temperature (°C) | A mercury-in-glass thermometer | |
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | |
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Buwono et al. (2021) |
pH | Hanna Pocket Type pH meter (Model number: HI96107) | |
Cadmium (Cd) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Saran et al. (2018) |
Mercury (Hg) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Khan et al. (2021) |
Lead (Pb) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Saran et al. (2018) |
Chromium (Cr) (mg L−1) | APHA 23rd Edition-2017 | Saran et al. (2018) |
Dissolved oxygen (DO) (mg L−1) | Lutron DO meter (Model number: Lutron/PDO-520) | |
Electrical conductivity (EC) (µS cm−1) | HM Digital EC meter (Model number: HM_AP2) | |
Salinity of wetland water (ppt) | HM Digital EC meter (Model number: HM_AP2) | Hardie and Doyle (2012) |
Rate of siltation (mm h−1) | Sediment volume was calculated over a period of 1 h of residence and settling of colloidal particles of sediment | Wieland and Hayward (1997) |
Availability of soil moisture | Luster Leaf 1827 soil moisture meter (Model: Rapitest Digital Plus) | Hájek et al. (2013) |
Soil bulk density (g cm−3) | Soil bulk density was calculated as the ratio of the mass of dry solids to the bulk volume of soil | |
Available soil nitrogen (N) (kg ha−1) | Procedure involves distilling the soil with alkaline potassium permanganate solution and determining the ammonia liberated | Tandon HLS. (1993) |
Available soil phosphorus (P) (kg ha−1) | Olsen's method was used for neutral–alkaline soils while the Bray and Kurtz method was used for acidic soils | Tandon HLS. (1993) |
Status of potassium (K) (kg ha−1) | Potassium with flame photometer model (Systronics flame photometer 128) | Jackson (1967) |
Soil organic carbon (SOC) (mg ha−1) | Wet oxidation method modified from Walkley and Black | Jackson (1967) |
Soil EC (µS cm−1) | Systronic EC meter (Model number: Systronics µ Conductivity meter 306) | Basak (2000) |
Soil pH | Systronic pH meter (Systronics µ pH meter 361) | Jackson (1967) |
Arsenic (As) (µg kg−1) | USEPA Acid Digestion Method 3050 | da Silva et al. (2014) |
Cadmium (Cd) (mg kg−1) | USEPA Acid Digestion Method 3050 | da Silva et al. (2014) |
Mercury (Hg) (µg kg−1) | USEPA Acid Digestion Method 3050 | da Silva et al. (2014) |
Lead (Pb) (mg kg−1) | USEPA Acid Digestion Method 3050 | da Silva et al. (2014) |
Chromium (Cr) (mg kg−1) | USEPA Acid Digestion Method 3050 | da Silva et al. (2014) |
Human induced stresses on LULC of wetland influence zone | \(\mathrm{Pressure} \, \mathrm{on} \,{\mathrm{LULC}}_{\mathrm{WIZ}}= \frac{({A}_{BL}+{A}_{AL}+{A}_{AF})}{{\mathrm{TA}}_{\mathrm{WIZ}}}\times 100,\) where WIZ = wetland influence zone; BL = built-up land, AL = agricultural land, AF = agricultural fallow, TA = total area (m2) of WIZ | Proposed by the authors; Roy et al. (2020) |
Areal fragmentation of perennial wetland zone | \({\mathrm{Areal} \, \mathrm{fragmentation}}_{\mathrm{WPZ}}=\frac{{\mathrm{TA}}_{\mathrm{WPZ}}-{\mathrm{WV}}_{\mathrm{WPZ}}}{{\mathrm{TA}}_{\mathrm{WPZ}}},\) where TAWPZ = area (m2) of perennial wetland zone (WPZ), WVWPZ = vegetated area (m2) of WPZ | Proposed by the authors |
Patch density (PD) | \(\mathrm{PD}=\frac{{n}_{i}}{A},\) where \({n}_{i}\) = number of patches of ith class A = the total landscape area (m2) | McGarigal and Marks (1995); Jia et al. (2015); Sun et al. (2016); Sun et al. (2017) |
Largest patch index (LPI) | \(\mathrm{LPI}= \frac{{\mathrm{max}}_{j=1 }^{n}{a}_{ij}}{A}\times 100,\) where \({a}_{ij}\)= area (m2) of patch j of ith class and A = the total landscape area (m2) | |
Shannon’s diversity index (SHDI) | \(\mathrm{SHDI}=-\sum_{i=1}^{m}\left({p}_{i}ln{p}_{i}\right),\) where \({p}_{i}\)= the proportion of the landscape occupied by each patch type i | McGarigal and Marks (1995); Jia et al. (2015); Liu and Hao (2017); Sun et al. (2016); Sun et al. (2017) |
Landscape contagion index of WIZ | \(\mathrm{CONTAG}=[1+\frac{{\sum }_{i=1}^{m}{\sum }_{k=1}^{m}[ \left({P}_{i }\right)(\frac{{g}_{ik}}{\sum_{k=1}^{m}{g}_{ik}})]\times [ln\left({P}_{i }\right)(\frac{{g}_{ik}}{\sum_{k=1}^{m}{g}_{ik}})]}{2\mathrm{ln}\left(m\right)}]\times (100),\) where \({P}_{i}\) = proportion of landscape occupied by ith patch type, \({g}_{ik}\) = the number of adjacencies between pixels of patch types i and k, and m = number of patch types present in the landscape | O’Neill et al. (1988); Sun et al. (2017) |
Existing extent of WIZ around the wetland acting as buffer | Average width [(major axis width + minor axis width)/2] of WIZ acting as buffer | Proposed by the authors |
Ratio of wetland wetted perimeter to WIZ perimeter acting as buffer | \(\mathrm{Ratio} \,\mathrm{of}\, {\mathrm{WP}}_{\mathrm{WIZ}}\, to \,{\mathrm{WP}}_{\mathrm{WPZ}}=\frac{{\mathrm{WP}}_{\mathrm{WIZ}}}{{\mathrm{WP}}_{\mathrm{WPZ}}}\times 100,\) where WP = wetted perimeter (m) | Proposed by the authors |
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) | \(\mathrm{NDVI}= \frac{(\mathrm{NIR}-\mathrm{RED})}{(\mathrm{NIR}+\mathrm{RED})}\) | |
Rate of change of vegetated area (VA) | \(\mathrm{Reduction} \,\mathrm{in} \,\mathrm{VA} \, (\%)=( \frac{{\mathrm{VA}}_{Y1 }-{\mathrm{VA}}_{Y2}}{{\mathrm{VA}}_{Y2}})\times 100,\) where VA = Vegetation area (m2), Y1 = base year, Y2 = final year | Proposed by the authors |
Rate of change of open water surface area (OWSA) | \(\mathrm{Reduction}\, \mathrm{in}\, \mathrm{OWSA}\, (\%)=( \frac{{\mathrm{OWSA}}_{Y1 }-{\mathrm{OWSA}}_{Y2}}{{\mathrm{OWSA}}_{Y2}})\times 100,\) where OWSA = open water surface area (m2), Y1 = base year, Y2 = final year | Proposed by the authors |