Fig. 1

Example landscapes for each of the four landscape types generated (from scenarios with very high spatial heterogeneity, \(\sigma_{S} \approx 2.56\)). From left to right: fractal with big habitat clusters (Hurst index = 0.9), fractal with small habitat clusters (Hurst index = 0.3), tiled landscape with big habitat clusters (minimum habitat cluster length minlv: 21 patches, maximum habitat cluster length maxlv: 32 patches) and tiled with small habitat clusters (minlv: 2 patches, maxlv: 12 patches). Each landscape type group is presented by 5 replicates that were used in all simulation experiments. The legend shows the habitat value’s deviation from the landscapes’ mean (0) (see Initialization and scenarios)